Nissan Motors Essay Example for Free

Nissan Motors Essay Dramatic loss in 2008 was wake up call for Nissan Motors Head Office, and the CEO of the company has conducted a meeting with fellow managements and shareholders to discuss the recovery plan for the company. As a result, he came up with Five year recovery plan detailed below. 1. Categorise by geographically- they categorised their market into three regions: Americas, Asians, AMIE which includes Africa, Middle East, India and Europe includes Russia. Each regions manufactured car will be sold in the nearby countries, saving transport cost. 2. Change in targeted customers- theres been sale increase in China and India, Nissan focused on selling more cars to those areas instead of the main customers such as USA, by doing that theyre making cars that meets the certain countries, for example in Japan, people buy car to get from A to B, whereas in Europe, people tend to go for money saving cars (eco-friendly/efficient 3. Reducing overall wage bill- means Nissan stopped hiring new staff, cut overtime, and introduced work sharing. Also, they made redundant of 20,000 workers in high cost countries including 1,500 in the UK. In Asia, they temporarily reduced salaries of cooperate officers by 25%, general managers by 20%, and other staff around 15% and eliminated bonuses and compensations. 4. Scrap scheme- In 2009, 10y+ cars can be exchanged for à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2000 towards their new car. It encouraged people to buy new car to help car manufactures to grow, bring more customers and replaced old cars with new ones. Nissans Scrap Scheme They extended the scheme for drivers exchanging 8-10 year old car to buy any British build range that includes any new Nissan Micra, Nissan Note, Nissan Qashqai. That means some people managed to buy British built Nissan Micra for as little as à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½5,995. CONCLUSIONS From the table above, it is clear that it has been a wake up call for the company. They recognised it quickly and came up with a solution that has worked for them perfectly. According to BBC website, they published that Nissan Motors recovered fully in three years instead of five, which is great news, however they cannot sit back and relax as the global economy is not yet fully recovered and there is a chance that foreign currency might fall and rise anytime again. Press are saying that they recovered, but according to the speech of the CEO of Nissan Motors, hes claiming that they are still in their recovery mode and continuing to watch their expenses and preparing for any event that might come up in the future. BIBLIOGRAPHY www.bbc.co.uk

The Customer Driven Marketing Strategy Marketing Essay

The Customer Driven Marketing Strategy Marketing Essay The marketing strategy explains the companys overall mission statement and future goals. Mostly marketing strategies are set with careful consideration by senior management. Marketing strategy must in cooperate the mission statement of the business. Shankar and Carpenter (2012, p.2) views marketing strategy as a broad plan of managerial initiatives and actions relating an organization to its customers and markets. Further states that there are three key aspects of marketing strategy as follows: Marketing strategy focuses on the strategic decisions necessary to allocate resources. It concerns managerial actions that have long-term effects. Decisions relating to marketing strategy are made by marketing executives in an organization and implemented by many others through the organization and beyond. Following are the four major activities involved in managing a customer-driven marketing strategy and the marketing mix are, i.e. Segmentation Targeting Differentiation Positioning Consumers are the centre of all marketing activity. The basic goals for all businesses are to create value for customers and build a strong profitable customer relationship. As stated by Kotler and Armstrong (2008, p.45) The marketing logic by which the company hopes to create this customer value and achieve these profitable relationships. Since the company owns the means of production it has the overall power to decide which customer to serve (segmentation and targeting) and how it will serve them (differentiation and Positioning). The business identifies the total market, then divides it into smaller segments, selects the most promising segments, and focuses on serving and satisfying customers in these segments in order to secure maximum profit. Using the market strategy the company then designs an integrated marketing mix made of factors under its control .i.e. Product , Place, Price, Promotion The four Ps. In order to find the best marketing strategy the company then uses market analysis, planning, implementation, and control. Through these activities fulfills the changes in demand from consumer behavior and adopts to the marketing environment. As stated by Mullins and Larreche (2006, p.3) IBMs competitive strategy was also quite consistent over the years, Given that the firm was never the lowest-cost producer in the industry, it did not try to compete with low prices. Instead, the firm pursued a quality differentiation strategy by offering superior products backed up by excellent technical service and selling them at premium prices. Customer-Driven Marketing Strategy In order to succeed in the modern competitive marketplace companies need to be customer centered, .i.e. they must fulfill the rapidly changing demands of the customer. Companies must draw the customer from competitor business, make them brand loyal and grow them by delivering greater value. Before anything a company must understand the needs and wants of its customers, only then it can fulfill by using the marketing strategy. Thus the company must use a careful market analysis. Market Segmentation The modern market is full of many types customers, products and needs. The company then determines which demand it can fulfill best and gain maximum benefits. Consumers are grouped in various ways geographic, demographic, psychographic, and products are made to fulfill their needs and wants. As stated by Kotler and Armstrong (2008, p.46) The process of dividing a market into distinct groups of buyers who have different needs, characteristics, or behaviors, who might require separate products or marketing programs is called market segmentation. Market segmentation consists of consumers who adopt in a similar way to different marketing efforts. In the car market for example wealthy consumers own the top notch cars but still make up only one segment of the market. Then we consumers who are price conscious and make up another market segment. It would difficult to fulfill needs of both segmentations so companies focus on the needs of one segment. Market Targeting After a company has defined one of its market segments it can target different segments of consumers. Market targeting involves information of each market segment and then selecting one or more segments to enter. The company must target segments in which it can best fulfill the needs of consumers. Wise companies enter into a segment from which they can achieve success in gaining customer loyalty and sustain it over time. A company might use the strategy niche marketing and target only a few segments from which the major competitor over looked. Alternatively companies might serve different kinds of customers but with the same wants, .i.e. Coca Cola. Multi nationals may serve the needs of all market segments. Most companies enter the market serving only segment of the market but as they gain success they grow and target a range of segments. Companies that attain the most success will eventually have the means necessary to serve all segments of the market; these leading companies have the different product design for each different market segment. Market Differentiation and Positioning After a company has chosen its market segment to enter, it must be decide how it will differentiate its market offering from competitors and must have unique way of serving its chosen target segment in order to secure maximum profits. A products position is the place it has in place of its competitor in the minds of consumers. The position of the product is one of the most crucial things in order to get consumers to buy it and attain brand loyalty from them. If products were similar consumers would have no way of differentiating between products and thus there would be no need to buy it. Positioning is the business securing a unique space in the minds of consumers in comparison to competitors products. When positioning its products the company identifies the plus points it has in that segment that provides competitive advantage over competitor. The company can give greater value to customers at low prices in comparison to competitors and attain a unique position in the market and win consumer brand loyalty. If a company promises greater value then it must differentiate its product from competitors and must deliver greater value in order for the product to maintain position in minds of the consumers. Thus effective positioning begins with differentiation, actually differentiating the product so that it gives consumers more value. When a company has achieved a successful position it must make strong steps to deliver and communicate that position to target consumers. The entire marketing program of a company appreciates the chosen position strategy. Developing an integrated Marketing Mix After developing the market strategy the company begins to plan the details of the marketing mix. The marketing mix a set of controllable marketing tools that the firm uses to produce the response it wants to get back from the target market. The marketing mix is whatever a firm has the power to do in order to influence demand on its product. The marketing mix consists of the four Ps Product, Price, Place, and Promotion. Product means the goods and services combination the company the target market. Price is the amount of money customers would have to pay to obtain the product. Different companies target different range of customers i.e. luxury car makers target the wealthy consumers. Place includes the different locations the companys product is available to target consumers. Promotion means attract consumers and persuades them to buy the product. Ferrell and Hartline (2011, p.17) explains, The role of social responsibility and ethics in marketing strategy has come to the forefront of important business issues in todays economy. Our society still reverberates from the effects of corporate scandals at Enron, WorldCom, and ImClone, among others. Although these scandals make for interesting reading, many innocent individuals have suffered the consequences from these companies unethical behavior.

Alcohol Treatments and Rehabilitation Programs

Alcohol Treatments and Rehabilitation Programs Medical intervention for drug addicts is part of achieving social normalisation. Choose a drug addiction (e.g. tobacco, alcohol, heroin, amphetamine or marijuana). Explore methods of treatment for this drug addiction within medical establishments and problems faced. What are the most effective methods and what might improve success rates of rehabilitation? During the ancient times alcohol consumption was basically used for medical purposes. The use of alcohol is popular in many societies, and its influences differ significantly with consumers. This trend is not only common in adult population, but also in adolescents. Although, it is often difficult to differentiate between casual drinking and alcohol abuse, continuous abuse of alcohol is often influenced by socioeconomic, mental and environmental factors, which can be life-threatening. Furthermore, alcohol can lead to potential physical disabilities and increase risks for social violence.Prolong consumption of alcohol can have harmful effects on the mental health and other important system in the body of consumers. This essay will examine different methods of alcohol treatments used in alcohol addiction such as drug treatment and non-pharmacological treatment. It will argue that the most effective treatment is Naltrexone. In addition, it will also argue that effective behavioural ther apies will improve success rate of rehabilitation for alcohol dependents. In the 19th century, alcohol was popular among the Australians, especially in New South Wales, but during 1980s, alcohol consumption was as low as two Litres per head. On the other hand, it increases to three Litres per head. Since ages ago, alcohol intake was mainly focus in Australian male beer drinking culture. Financial pressures have not been the only influences on drinking patterns but also moral and social changes. As a result to this, many women started consuming alcohol as well and there was drinking culture changes in Australia (National Drug Strategy, 2001). At some point, in 20th century high demand on alcohol lead to change in liquor store close up earlier at six p.m. However, it does not work out as the alcohol dependence addict against this rule. In 1982 alcohol use in Australia was 9.8 Litres per head but it drops to 7.5 per head in 1988 and 1993. The average age group in men that started drinking alcohol is 16 years old to compared with women. An additional, women of all ages consume a smaller amount of alcohol contrast with men or could be non-drinker. Mostly, women like better to drink wine and men regularly choose to drink beer. Binge drinking to intoxication and are common in adolescent. It is defined as having more than seven drinks in male and more than five drinks in female. As a result, binge drink is common between current age group and from community (National Drug Strategy, 2001) There are a number of ways to treat patients with alcohol problems. These include; pharmacotherapy, psychosocial and motivation treatments. The first treatment in alcohol addiction refers to pharmacotherapy. In this therapy, there are three main drugs that are used in treating alcohol, which include; Disulfiram, Naltrexone and Methadone (Caputo, Vignoli, Grignaschi, Cibin, Addolorato, Bernardi, 2014). The first, drug that is used in alcohol treatment is called Disulfiram. It is defined as a quaternary ammonium compound. It has been used in treating alcohol dependency for the last 60 years (Melo, Lopes, Alves, 2014). Disulfiram has shown positive impacts in patients with alcohol dependence even through oral medication are taken (Skinner, Lahmek, Pham, Aubin, 2014). In addition, Disulfiram was the first medication that was approval by Food Drug Administration (FDA) (Elbreder, Humerez, Laranjeira, 2010). However, Disulfiram effectiveness depends on the capability to block the action of acetaldehyde dehydrogenises, which with alcohol ingestion sharply increases the blood absorption of Acetaldehyde according to Zindel Kranzler, (2014). As a consequence, using Disulfiram could cause side effects such as facial flushing,headache and nausea according to Zindel Kranzler, (2014). Furthermore, Melo, Lopes, Alves (2014) claim that alcohol dependent may develop possible reaction after taking Disulfiram for long term such as; fatigue, delirium and also vomiting. Although this medication is frenquently used to treat alcohol patients, it can also react on the central nervous system, which inhibit dopamine as well as increasing dopamine concentration in the metabolic systems (Elbreder, Humerez, Laranjeira, 2010). Hence, when Disulfiram is used appropraitely, it will have positive impact on patients’ health who have been depending on alohol. Another drug which is used for alcohol treatment is Methadone, which is a synthetic opioid that is used as anti-addiction medication. Methadone is often used for residents with an opioid dependency such as; heroin, oxycodone, hydrocodone, morphine, oxymorphone, fentanyl and many more (Caputo, Vignoli, Grignaschi, Cibin, Addolorato, Bernardi, 2014). Methadone helps to stabilise withdrawal symptoms during detoxification and helps recovering addicts manage their cravings. In addition, methadone is used in alcohol addiction treatment and can either be a short term or a longer term program. It is used to assist the detoxification process, and can help manage symptoms of recovery and support residents in maintaining sobriety. Dyer White (1997) claim that during the intake of methadone there are general side effects such as; insomnia, sweating, painful joints and bones. In addition, it is also claimed that majority of alcohol addicts complain of constipation, dry mouth as well as depressi on, perhaps due to hormonal changes (Dyer White, 1997). According to Petrakis, et al., (2006) patients will also have symptom such as, delirium and anxiety. As a result during the admistration of this medication, patients need to be monitered closely from those symptoms. Thus, methadone is use in alcohol treatment from stopping patient from having craving of alcohol and also helps patient to overcome from alcohol. Another, drug that is used to treat patients with alcohol addictions are also treated with Naltrexone. This is a drug that is given to patients who are dependent on alcohol and is safe for psychiatric disorder patients. In addition, Naltrexone can be administered through two methods, which include patients taking through long-acting injection and the other through oral tablets (Elbreder, Humerez, Laranjeira, 2010; Anton, et al., 2011; Galvez, Fernandez, Manzanaro, 2013). The primary function of Naltrexone primary is to decrease chances of withdrawal symptoms and the cravings of alcohol (Littleton Zieglgansberger, 2010). Furthermore, naltrexone is more effective for a patient with high craving (Elbreder, Humerez, Laranjeira, 2010). According to Mark, Kranzler and Song (2003) Naltrexone it reduces the addict’s desire for alcohol consumption. Also, Caputo, Vignoli, Grignaschi, Cibin, Addolorato, Bernardi ( 2014) state that side effects can be faced by alcohol dependent while on this medication such as, head-aches, nause and anxiety. Another side effect of this drug include; sleep difficulty, irritability and anxiety (Anton, et al., 2011). However, the advantages of using this medication is that, for the duration on this medication treatment, the patient is allowed to consume small amount of alcohol (Anton, et al., 2011). Despite, its side effects, Naltrexone can still have positve impact on alcohol dependents. Thus, Naltrexone is generally given to patients to stop the craving for alcohol, because it can be taken through oral or injection method. Apart from pharmacological treatments, there are two non-pharmacological treatments that can assist patients depending on alcohol. These non-pharmacological treatments include; behavioural therapy and community-based rehabilitation programs. The first treatment refers to behavioural therapies. For example, a counselling and motivational interviewing with alcohol addicts can play an important role to assist patients. The advantage of using this therapy is that, it is implemented outside from health institutions, such as primary care, community centre and school (Kalapatapu, Ho, Cai, Vinogradow, Batki, Mohr, 2014; Feinn, R, Kranzler, 2007). In addition, behavioural therapies are principally successful in giving self confidence, changes for change, and provide the ability for some people to quit drinking on their own (Feinn, R, Kranzler, 2007). On the other hand, financial and organizational resources are generally restricted in alcohol treatment. This means that the treatment is foc used on improving and changing drinking behaviors of alcohol addicts. Also patients, who are staying in countryside, might have difficulties to get medical treatment due to time-consuming, especially to travel from distances to access the rehabilitation services. Such limitations could deny the patient from being treated. Indeed, there was alternative method to treat alcohol addiction patient via telephone, which might not need to be confronting each other, between the medical staff and client. The result from that treatment, using telephone as a technique to communicate with alcohol patient has shown positive response. In contrast, using telephone to talk to alcohol addiction cannot identify where there the patient is going through any sign and symptom such as depression during alcohol withdrawal (Kalapatapu, Ho, Cai, Vinogradow, Batki, Mohr, 2014). In general, it is a good method to treat patient from alcohol withdrawal without worrying even though the patient is in rural area. T he second non-pharmacological treatment involves community-based programs. This treatment focuses on helping alcohol patients from overcoming alcohol habits are through community rehabilitation. It is a treatment utilized to serve patients which have both mental and physical disabilities. For example, a study was done with 65 participants from State-funded vocational rehabilitation agencies to get three or four days for patients to participate in that study (Sprong, E, D, Pappas, Melissa, 2012). The aim of community rehabilitation was to determine that this course could be effective to contribute and identify the barrier in community rehabilitation. However, from this study, 27 patients disagreed to take part in the survey. There were 23 males and 15 females who participated in this study. During the study, patients are asked to answer few question and what are likely symptoms often they encounter while on alcohol, such as vomiting, hand shaking or sleepless night (Sprong, E, D, Pa ppas, Melissa, 2012). Unfortunately, this study was unsuccessful because of patients low education background, but by providing some motivational programs and counseling sessions could help achieve the aims of this community-based program (Sprong, E, D, Pappas, Melissa, 2012). Thus, it is one of the treatments in alcohol patient that could help to live normal life. In conclusion, alcohol is an addictive substance and can lead to many social and mental health problems when abused. However, there are various medical treatments and effective social rehabilitation programs for alcohol addiction that can play an important role to assist in recovery processes of addicts who are struggling to cope with this problem. Effective alcohol treatments and rehabilitation programs will not only reduce the rate of alcohol dependence successfully, but will also prevent other alcohol-related issues in the society. References Anton, R. F., Myrick, H., Wright, T. M., Latham, P. K., Baros, A. M., Waid, L. R., Randall, P. K. (2011). Gabapentin Combined with Naltrexone for the treatment of alcohol dependence. Am J Psychiatry, 709-717. C. B. (2000). Medical Consequences of Alcohol Abuse. alcohol research and health, 27. Caputo, F., Vignoli, T., Grignaschi, A., Cibin, M., Addolorato, G., Bernardi, M. (2014). Pharmacological management of alcohol dependence : From mono-therapy to pharmacogenetics and beyong. European Neuropsychoparmaology, 24, 181-191. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2013.10.004 Desai, M. M., Rosenheck, R. A., Craig, T. J. (2005). Screening for Alcohol Use Disorders Among Medical Outpatients: The Influence of Individual and Facility Characteristics. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 1521. Dyer, K. R., White, J. M. (1997). Patterns of symptom complaints in methadone maintenance patient. National Drug Strategy Postgraduate Research Scholarship, 1445. Elbreder, M. F., Humerez, D. C., Laranjeira, R. (2010). The use of disulfiram for alcohol-dependent and duration of outpatient treatment. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 191-195. Feinn, C. E., R, A. A., Kranzler. (2007). Exploring Treatment Options for Alcohol Use Disorders. National Institutes of Health, 214-221. Galvez, P. B., Fernandez, L. G., Manzanaro, V. M. (2013). Addressing Unhealthy Alcohol Use In Primary Care. New York: Richard Saitz. Hulse, G. K. (2012). Improving clinical outcomes for naltrexone as a management of problem alcohol use. British Journal if Clinical Pharmacology, 632-641. Kalapatapu, R. K., Ho, J., Cai, X., Vinogradow, S., Batki, S. L., Mohr, D. c. (2014). Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy in Depressed Primary Care Patient with Co-Occuring Problematic Alcohol Use : Effect of Telephone-Administered vs. Face-to-Face Treatment -A Secondry Analysis. Journal of Psychoactive rugs, 37-41. Littleton, J., Zieglgansberger, W. (2010). Pharmacological Mechanisms of Naltrexone and Acamprosate in the Prevention of Relapse in Alcohol Dependence. The American Journal on Addictions, 53-61. Mark, T. L., Kranzler, H. R., Song, X. (2003). Understanding US addiction physicians low rate of Naltrexone Prescription. Drug Alcohol Dependence, 71, 219-228. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0376-8716(03)00134-0 Melo, R. C., Lopes, R., Alves, J. C. (2014). A Case of Psychosi in Disulfiram Treatment For Alcoholism. Hindawi Publishing Corporation, 1-4. Petrakis, I. L., Poling, J., Levinson, C., Nich, C., Carroll, K., Ralevski, E., Rounsaville, B. (2006). Naltrexone and Disulfiram in patient with alcohol Dependence and Comorbid Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Veterans Affairs MERIT grant (to ILP) and the VISN I Mental Illness Research Education and Clinical Center (MIRECC) (BR), 777-783. Skinner, M. D., Lahmek, P., Pham, H., Aubin, H. J. (2014). Disulfiram Efficacy in the Treatment of Alcohol Dependence : A Meta-Analysis. OPEN ACCESS Freely available online, 16. Sprong, E, M., D, T., Pappas, Melissa. (2012). Utilization of Community Rehabilitation Programs : Screening for Alcohol and Drugs. Journal of Rehabilitation , 13. strategy, N. D. (2001). Alcohol in Australia : Issues and Strategies. Canberra: The National Alcohol Strategy. Zindel, L., Kranzler, H. R. (2014). Pharmacotherapy of Alcohol Use Disorders:Seventy-Five Years of Progress. Journal of Studies on alcohol and drugs/supplement, 79-88.

John Adams versus John Quincy Adams Essay -- essays research papers

Even though John Adams (1735-1826) and John Quincy Adams (1767-1848) were father and son, also they were our President in the United States but they are not the same. The differences are their early lives, the early political career, and major presidential actions. The early lives of John Adams and John Quincy Adams are different. John Adams?s father, who also named John, sent his son ? young Adams to Harvard College at age fifteen, and he expected him to become a minister. His father was working hard to make young Adams?s life different than his own which was to become an educated person. However, John Adams did not want to become a minister. After he graduated in 1755, he taught school for few years in Worcester, and that allowed him to think about his career choice. After much reflection, he decided to become a lawyer, and studied law in the office of James Putnam, a prominent lawyer in Worcester. In 1758, he was admitted to the bar. He put the skill to good use as a lawyer, often recording cases he observed so that he could study and reflect upon them. His report of the 1761 argument of James Otis in the superior court of Massachusetts as to the legality of Writs of Assistance is a good example. On the other hand, John Quincy?s fat her which is John Adams did not push him to become a minister. Moreover, John Adams brought young Adams to France (1778 ? 1779) and to the Netherlands (1780 ? 1782) to acquire his early education at institutions at the University of Leiden. John Adams let his son explored the world more than his own father did. At age fourteen, young Adams accompanied Francis Dana on a mission to St. Petersburg, Russia, to gain recognition to the new republic. He also spent time in Finland, Sweden, Den... ... appointed him. He felt he deserve credit for helping to set this country on the right path towards freedom, prosperity, and loyalty to the country. Although they might not appreciate it now, his confident future generations will follow his lead to make this country the best it can be. For that generation he could offer this, once you set your goals, never give up. He had numerous jobs as minister and ambassadors to many different countries before he finally won the election to become the President. The path he traveled was not easy, but I think he believed his hard work paid off. I think if he still alive today he would probably take revenge on all those crooked politicians he had been hearing about who take bribes and shred confidential documents. They deteriorate the fabric this country was built on, and it will be a long time before it is fully repaired.

Lorraine Glass :: essays research papers

Landscape Writing and the Lorrain Glass   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Looking through my Lorrain glass I saw different moods of a scene. I sat on top of my car and looked out over a field of apple trees, raspberry bushes, and pumpkin patches. At the end of the fields was a huge white house with a ton of windows. The house had a wide porch that went all the way around to the back. I couldn't see much detail from such a great distance, but the smoke coming out of the chimney told me there was someone inside.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I chose three different colors to put into my Lorrain glass. Red, yellow, and green slates of color all gave a different feeling to the picture I was creating in my frame. It was almost like a snap shot. I chose colors that I thought were drastically different to give a different feeling for the same scene.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Each slate did give a different feeling, but they looked similar in shape. Through the cellophane wrap, when the wind blew, the images seemed to wave. They had a small slant and looked as if they were moving. It was about 4 p.m. and the sun was just going down. The sun would hit the Lorrain Glass and made the image bright.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The red piece of cellophane made me feel hot. I felt that the sun coming through made it seem even warmer. It gave me a feeling of desert warmth with no water in sight. All the trees looked bare and dead. The yellow piece of paper made everything seem sunny and bright. The house looked full of light. I could picture in my mind the owner of the house having a glass of lemonade on the porch. The trees, the house, and the pumpkins all seem to come to life. They looked full and lively. The green cellophane seemed kind of cold and dark. The sun coming through of course made it seem a little brighter but it still had that sense of dreariness. The pumpkins looked rotted and old, the trees appeared bare with bad apples around its base, and the house just seemed to blend into the back round.

Biology Lab

Lab   #1   ? Introduction   to   the   Microscopy   & Observation   of   Prokaryotic   and   Eukaryotic Cells Introduction Many   of   the   cells   and   organisms   that   you   will   be   studying   are   at   the   lower   limits   of   visibility   of   light   microscopes;   therefore,   it   is   extremely   important   that   you   attain   critical   lighting   and   focussing. It   is   also   important   to   handle   the   microscope   competently   to   avoid   damaging   either   the   microscope   or   the   preparation   you   are   studying. Even   students   who   have   previously   used   microscopes  should  read  the  instructions  carefully. Guide  Biolabo Using a web rowser, go to   the   following   web   site: http://salinella. bio. uottawa. ca/biolabo/   (you   can   try   it   from   home). Under   Microscopy   you   will   find   links   to   pages   that   describe   both   type   of   microscopes   you   will   use   this   semester,   as   well   as   how   to   set   up   and   use   them. It   is   strongly   recommended   that   you   visit   these   pages   prior   to   attending  your  first  lab. Image  J  /  Qcapture Although   you   can   make   all   your   observations   by   watching   directly   through   the   oculars,   it   also   can   be   done   on   the   computer   screen   using   the   digital   camera   attached   to   each   microscope.For   that,   you   will   use   the   Image   J   program   together   with   a   capture   plugin called   Qcapture. Visit   the   lab   website   to   learn   how   to   use   Image   J   (link   on   the   homepage). All   observations   can   be   made   on   your  computer   screen   or   in   the   oculars. Each   method   has   its   advantages   and   drawbacks;   you   will   have   to   choose   which   one  it  more  appropriate  (or  the  one  you  prefer): Oculars Screen ? Greater  resolution ? Wider  field  of  view ? Can  share  observation  with  others ? More  comfortable  for  users ? Take  pictures  while  observing Lab1  ? Microscopy The  Compound  Microscope On   the   Guide   Biolabo   page   click   on   the   CX41   Compound   Microscope   link   then   on   Parts   and   Function. This   will   bring   up   a   labelled   line   diagram   of   your   microscope. Familiarize   yourself   with   the   various   components   shown   in   this   figure. Then,   click   on   Setup   and   Bright   field   alignment   in   order   to   know  how  to  use  and  handle  the  microscope. Now,   locate   your   compound   microscope   in   the   cupboard   below   the   sink   of   your   workstation. Place   it   on   the   counter   between   the omputer   and   the   end  of  the  counter. Be  sure  that  whenever  you  transport  the  microscope,  it   is   always   kept   upright;   the   ocular   lens   will   fall   out   if   the   scope   is   tilted   or   swung. Even   though   you   don’t   need   the   dissecting   microscope   right   now,   take   it   out  of  the  cupboard  and  install  it  beside  the  compound  microscope. Connect   one   firewire   cable   to   each   of   the   cameras   installed   on   top   of   the   microscopes. This  way,  everything  is  setup  for  further  observations  both  on   your  computer  screen  and  through  the  oculars. Parts  of  the  compound  microscopeThe   microscope   consists   of   a   system   of   lenses,   a   light   source,   and   a   geared   mechanism   for   adjusting   the   distance   between   the   lens   system   and   object   being   observed. There   are   a   number   of   important   components   and   it   is   essential   that   you   be   able   to   identify   them   and   understand   their   function   before  you  can  proceed. By  going  through  the  different  modules  in  Biolabo   and   using   the   microscope   you   will   develop   a   competency   for   bright   field   microscopy. Identify   the   following   components   using   Biolabo   (Parts   andà ‚   functions   figure)  and  your  microscope:REVOLVING  NOSEPIECE:  Supports  the  various  objectives  ? You  will  only  use   the  4x,  10x  and  40x  objectives  in  the  BIO1140  labs  (not  the  100x). STAGE:   Supports   the   specimen   being   observed. A   system   of   knobs   on   the   side   of   the   stage   allows   you   to   move   the   specimen   under   the   objective   on   the  X  and  Y  axes. Try  and  move  the  stage. COARSE   FOCUS   KNOB:   Permits   rapid   change   in   distance   between   the   specimen   and   the   objective   thereby   allowing   for   rough   focussing   –   Do   not   use  when  focusing  with  the  40x  objectiveFINE   FOCUS   KNOB:   Permits   small   changes   in   distance   between   the   specimen   and   the   obje ctive   and   thereby   allows   for   final   focussing   of   the   image. 10 Lab1  ? Microscopy OCULAR   OR   EYEPIECE:   A   magnifying   element   in   the   microscope,   usually   10X. It   is   through   the   ocular,   or   eyepiece   that   one   looks   at   the   specimen. All   our   microscopes   are   parfocal,   so   that   when   an   object   is   in   focus   with   one   objective,   the   focus   will   not   be   completely   lost   when   changing   to   the   next  objective. OBJECTIVES:  The  magnifying  element  which  is  closest  to  the  specimen.See   figure  1  to  find  out  about  the  engravings  on  the  side  of  each  objective. CONDENSER:   System   of   lenses   that   concentrates   the   light   furnished   by   the   illuminator. It  does  not  magnif y  the  object. CONDENSER   HEIGHT   ADJUSTMENT   KNOB:   Allows   one   to   focus   the   concentrated  light  onto  the  specimen. APERTURE  IRIS  DIAPHRAGM:  Used  to  reduce  glare  from  unwanted  light  by   adjusting  the  angle  of  the  cone  of  light  that  comes  from  the  condenser; Production  of  Image  by  a  Compound  Microscope The   most   important   part   of   a   microscope   is   the   objective.All   the   other   parts  of  the  instrument  are  designed  to  help  the  objective  produce  the  best   possible  image. The  best  image  is  not  the  largest;  it  is  the  clearest. There  is   no   value   to   a   high   magnification. If   the   resolution   is   poor   you   will   have   no   better  understanding  of  the  specimen. light  beam ocularà ‚  lens Magnification Numerical  aperture  (NA) Determines   the   resolving power  of  the  objective* Optical   tube   length   /   max. coverslip  thickness  in  mm prism objective  lens specimen condenser  lens Figure  1:  Objectives  engravings light  sourceFigure  2:  Image  production  in  a  compound  microscope. 11 Lab1  ? Microscopy *Resolving  power  is  the  ability  to  see  two  objects  that  are  very  close  as  two   separate  objects. The  human  eye  will  resolving  power  is  about  100 µm. Using  the  compound  microscope Always   handle   the   microscope   GENTLY! It   is   an   expensive,   delicate   and   heavy   instrument. Carry   it   with   two   hands,   one   hand   on   the   arm,   and   the   other   hand   under   the   base. If   the   ocular   or   objective   is   dir ty,   wipe   it   clean   using   ONLY   Kimwipes   or   special   lens   tissue   and   cleaning   fluid   supplied.If   you   use   anything   else   you   may   scratch   the   lens. Wipe   up   any   cleaning   fluid   immediately;   otherwise   it   will   dissolve   the   glue   which   holds   the   lens   in   place. REMEMBER,  your  demonstrator  is  here  to  help,  so†¦ ASK! 1. Make   sure   that   the   power   cord   is   plugged   into   the   back   of   your   microscope  and  into  a  power  outlet. 2. Using  the  letter  Ã¢â‚¬Å"e†Ã‚  microscope  slide  provided,  follow  steps  2  through  13   in   the   Setup   and   Bright   field   alignment   procedure   of   Biolabo. Remember,   observation  can  be  done  on  screen  or  through  the  oculars. Orientation  an d  working  distance . Starting   your   examination   with   the   4X   objective,   position   the   letter   â€Å"e†Ã‚   slide  on  the  stage. 2. Draw  what  you  see  in  the  microscope:_________________ 3. What  would  a  slide  with  the  letter  Ã¢â‚¬Å"t†Ã‚  look  like  under  the  microscope? _________________ 4. Using  the  knobs  located  on  the  side  of  the  stage  and  looking  through  the   microscope,   move   the   slide   slowly   to   the   right,   then   to   the   left. Record   your  observations. ___________________________________   5. Now,   move   the   slide   slowly   away   from   you,   then   towards   you   while   observing  through  the  microscope.Record  your  observations   ____________________________________ 6. Focus  on  the  slide  at  10X. Check  the  dist ance  between  the  objective  lens   and  your  slide  (=  the  working  distance,  see  also  the  reference  at  the  end  of   this   chapter). Now   switch   to   the   40X   objective   and   check   the   working   distance. What   happens   to   the   working   distance   as   your   magnification   increases? 12 Lab1  ? Microscopy Depth  of  field  (depth  of  focus) Lenses   have   a   depth   of   focus. It   is   the   number   of   planes   in   which   an   object   appears   to   be   in   focus.Extend   your   fist   at   arm’s   length   in   front   of   you   and   hold   your   thumb   up. Concentrate   on   your   thumb   and   notice   that   the   objects  past  your  thumb  on  the  other  side  of  the  room  are  not  clearly  seen. Similarly   withà ‚   a   microscope,   when   it   is   focussed   on   one   surface,   the   surfaces  lower  or  higher  will  be  out  of  focus. 1. Position   a   prepared   slide   with   coloured   threads   upon   the   stage. At   low   power,  4X,  focus  on  the  area  where  the  threads  cross. 2. Using  the  fine  focus  adjustment,  focus  up  and  down  slowly. 3. Repeat   using   different   objectives.What   can   you   say   about   the   depth   of   field   at   different   magnifications? Has   it   increased   or   decreased? (i. e. ,   can   you  see  more  threads  in  one  focal  plane  at  4X  or  40X? ) ____________________________________________________________ Magnification The  magnification  given  by  objectives  and  oculars  is  engraved  on  them. The   total   magnification   for   any   combination   of   objective   and   ocular   is   the   product  of  the  magnification  of  each  lens. Objective  magnification Ocular  magnification Total  Magnification Light  intensity Working  distance 4x 10x 40x High 22mm 10x 10x 100xMedium 10. 5mm 40x 10x 400x Low 0. 56mm Table1   . Comparison   magnification,   working   distance   and   brightness   at   three   different   objective  magnifications. You  also  can  calculate  the  magnification  of  your  picture  using  the  following   formula: Magnification  factor=  measured  size  of  object  =  (  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  X) Actual  size  of  object 13 Lab1  ? Microscopy Specimen   size   and   Magnification   of the  picture Before   you   start   this   exercise,   make   sure   you   have   carefully   read   the   website   section   rele vant   to   the   software   you   will   use   to   take   digital   pictures  (ImageJ/Qcapture).The   goal   of   this   section   is   to   teach   you   different   techniques   that   will   allow   you   to   determine   the   size   of   objects   you’re   observing   under   the   microscope. The   general   principle   is   fairly   simple:   2   objects   have   the   same   relative   size   (expressed   as   a   ratio)   in   the   real   world   and   under   the   microscope. actual  size  of  object  A  Ã‚  Ã‚  =  on? screen  size  of  object  A  Ã‚  ? A1  =  A2     actual  size  of  object  B  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  on? screen  size  of  object  B  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  B1  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  B2 The  following  exercises  are  applications   of  this  formula. Place  a  sli de  under   the   microscope.Choose   the   right   objective   and   adjust   the   focus   and   light   level. Then,  choose  a  structure  you  want  to  measure  and  take  a  picture. A? First   method:   Measuring   an   object   using   the   field   of   view  (FOV): The   simplest   way   to   determine   the   size   of   an   object   is   to   use   the   known   size  of  the  whole  field  of  view  (FOV,  the  whole  picture  from  left  to  right). 1? On   the   computer   screen   (using   a   ruler   and   without   writing   anything   of   the  screen),  measure  the  object  of  which  you  want  to  determine  the  size  (=   A2) 2? Then,  measure  the  width  of  the  whole  picture  on  the  screen  (=B2). ? Refer   to   table   2   on   page   20   to   know   the   actual   size   of   the   field   of   view   for  the  objective  you’re  using  (=B1) 4? Use  the  following  formula: Actual  size  of  the  object  (A1)  =  Actual  size  of  the  FOV  (B1)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  x  Ã‚  Ã‚  on? screen  size  of  the  object  (A2) on? screen  size  of  the  FOV  (B2) Example:   On   a   snapshot   using   the   4x   objective,   an   insect   has   an   on? screen   length  of  10cm. The  whole  picture  is  20cm  wide. What  is  the  actual  size  of  the  insect? ______________________________ 14 Lab1  ? Microscopy B? Second   method:   Measuring   an   object   using   a   scale   bar  file:From   Image   J   (using   the   file   /   open   command),   open   the   file   that   contains   the   relevant   scale   bar   in   the    (T:/BIO/BIO1140):   new10X. jpg   for   the   10x   objective,  and  new40X. jpg  (for  the  4x  and  40x  objectives). Then,   using   a   ruler   measure   the   following   distances   directly   on   the   computer  screen: 1? The   on? screen   length   (or   width)   of   the   object   whose   size   you   wish   to   determine  (=A2) 2? The  width  of  the  scale  bar  on  the  screen  (=B2)   You  now  can  calculate  the  actual  size  of  the  object  using  the  formula: actual  size  of  object  =  on? creen  length  of  object  Ã‚  x  Ã‚  actual  size  of  scale  bar*        Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  on? screen  length  of  scale  bar ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A1  =  A2  x  B1 B2 *The   actual   size   of   the   scale   bar   is   indicated   on   the   scale   bar   file   (ex:   on   the   new10x. jpg   file,  the  bar  represents  0. 2mm  at  10x  or  0. 02mm  at  100x)  =  B1 Example:  I  took  a  picture  of  a  small  insect  larva,  using  the  4x  objective. The   larva   length   is   60mm   on   the   screen. The   scale   bar   on   the   new40x. jpg   is   30mm  and  represents  0. 2mm. What  is  the  actual  size  of  the  larva? _________________________Do  not  put  the  compound  microscope  back  in  the  cupboard  you  will  need  it   later  this  afternoon. Points  to  remember  concerning  microscopes 1. Always   work   with   a   clean   microscope. Use   only   the   lens   paper   provided. Don't  forget  to  clean  the  slide  too! 2. Always   locate   the   specimen   under   low   power   and   work   your   way   up   to   the  high  power  objective. 3. Never   use   the   coarse   focusing   knob   when   the   high   power   lens   is   in   position. Use  only  the  fine  focus  knob. 4. Never  use  the  100x  in  1st  year  labs  (we  didn’t  teach  you  how)   5.Always   readjust   illumination   whenever   you   change   the   objective. Too   much  light  will  give  you  a  blurry  image  that  you  cannot  focus  on. 15 Lab1  ? Microscopy The  stereoscopic  microscope (dissecting  microscope) The   stereoscopic   microscope,   also   called   stereoscope   or   dissecting   microscope,   is   used   to   view   objects   that   are   too   large   or   too   thick   to   observe  under  the  comp ound  microscope. Stereo   microscopes   are   always   equipped   with   two   oculars   producing   a   stereoscopic   or   three? dimensional   image. Unlike   the   compound   microscope,  the  image  is  not  inverted.Our   stereo   microscopes   provide   magnification   in   the   range   of   6. 7X   ? 45X   using   a   zoom? type   lens   system. By   rotating   a   dial   located   on   the   right   side   of   the   stereo   microscope   head,   the   viewer   obtains   a   continuous   change   of   magnification. Our   stereo   microscopes   can   be   used   with   reflected   or   transmitted   light. Reflected   light   is   directed   unto   opaque   specimens   from   above   and   is   reflected   to   the   viewer. Transmitted   light   is   used   with   translucent   specimens   and   passes   through   the   specimen   from   beneath   the   stage   and   into  the  viewer's  eyes.Use  of  the  stereoscopic  microscope 1. On   the   Biolabo   home   page   left   click   on   Stereoscope   (Dissecting   microscope)  and  then  on  Stereoscope  setup. 2. Click  on  Step  1  and  read  it  carefully. Obtain  a  stereo  microscope  from  the   same  cupboard  as  your  compound  microscope  if  you  haven’t  yet. 3. Click  on  and  read  steps  2  through  7. 4. Place  a  coin  on  the  stage. 5. Using   the   focussing   knob   on   either   side   of   the   arm,   lower   or   raise   the   objective   until   the   coin   is   in   focus. Examine   it   in   both   reflected   and   transmitted  light.Which   is   best   for   an   opaque   specimen? Try   t he   various   magnifications   by   turning   the   zoom   knob. The   reflected   light source   is   similar   to   a   spotlight   and  its  orientation  can  be  adjusted  manually. Try  rotating  the  light  upwards   and  downwards. 6. Examine  other  materials  such  as  brine  shrimp  larvae  (Artemia)  in  a  watch   glass   using   both   reflected   and   transmitted   light. Add   1? 2   drops   of   â€Å"proto? slow†Ã‚   solution   to   slow   down   the   larvae. Estimate   the   actual   size   of   one   larva:  __________ 16 Lab1  ? Microscopy Prokaryotic  and  Eukaryotic  cellsIt   has   long   been   recognized   that   living   organisms   are   composed   of   basic   structural   and   functional   units   called   cells. Cells   can   be   divided   into   two   general   type s:   prokaryotic   and   eukaryotic,   based   on   the   presence   of   a   nucleus  and  other  membrane  bound  organelles  in  the  latter. Prokaryotic   cells   belong   to   2   big   groups:   archaea   and   eubacteria. They   are   usually   smaller   than   eukaryotic   cells   (typically   1? 5 µm). These   unicellular   organisms  may  be  small,  but  they  are  the  most  abundant  organisms  on  the   planet,   representing   about   half   the   biomass   (Biology,   Brooker   et   al. 010,   McGraw? Hill&Ryerson). They   are   devoid   of   membrane   bound   organelle   such   as   the   nucleus,   mitochondria   or   chloroplasts. Their   genetic   material   is   usually   composed   of   one   circular   chromosome   plus   other   extra   chromosomal  elements  called  plasmids. Euka ryotic   cells   are   usually   much   larger. They   possess   a   membrane   bound   nucleus,   their   organelles   are   more   complex   and   numerous,   and   their   genome   is   larger   than   prokaryotes. Eukaryotic   organisms   can   be   uni? or   multicellular. You   will   have   a   chance   to   observe   many   eukaryotic   cells   during  this  semester:  Amoeba,  Lilly,  Whitefish†¦.In   today's   exercise   you   will   take   a   first   look   at   the   similarities   and   differences   between   prokaryotic   and   eukaryotic   cells   as   well   as   the   diversity  within  these  groups. You   should   familiarize   yourselves   with   a   whole   array   of   cellular   structures   and   organelles   you   will   probably   encounter   during   the   course   of   this   exercise. Before   your   scheduled   lab   session,   write   down   the   definition   and   function  for  each  of  the  following  terms:  plasma  (cell)  membrane,  cell  wall,   protoplast,  cytoplasm,  vacuoles,  nucleus,  nucleolus  and  chloroplasts.Eukaryotic  Cells:  Elodea  (plant) 1? Get   a   young   green   Elodea   leaf   from   the   jar. Mount   it   in   a   drop   of   water   on   a   clean   microscope   slide   with   the   convex   side   of   the   leaf   uppermost. Cover  the  preparation  with  a  coverslip. 2? Observe   the   preparation   at   4X,   then   at   10X. If   you   see   brownish   oval   structures   on   the   leaf   surface,   ignore   then. These   are   probably   epiphytic   diatoms. Concentrate  your  attention  on  the  cells  near  the  cent ral  rib  at  the   base  of  the  leaf  and  on  the  marginal  cells  at  the  edge  of  the  leaf. Can  you  distinguish  several  layers  making  up  the  leaf? ____ ? What   is   the   average   length   ______   and   width   ______   of   the   cells   in   micrometres? 17 Lab1  ? Microscopy 3? Focussing  at  40X  locate  the  cell  wall,  the  vacuole,  the  cytoplasm  and  the   numerous  green  chloroplasts. ? What   important   biological   process   takes   place   in   the   chloroplasts? _____________________________________ ? What  pigment  is  responsible  for  their  green  colouration? ________________________________________________ ? What  is  the  shape  of  chloroplasts? ____________________________________________ ? Are  the  chloroplasts  moving? What  sort  of  movement? ____________________________ _____________________ ? The  phenomenon  you  are  observing  is  called  cytoplasmic  streaming   or   cyclosis. What   do   you   think   the   function   of   such   a   process   could   be? ___________________________________________________ 4? You   have   probably   realised   that   the   plasma   membrane   cannot   be   seen   in   plant   cells. It   is   too   thin   to   be   resolved   with   the   compound   microscope.In   order   to   see   the   true   limiting   boundary   of   the   cytoplasm   it   is   necessary   to   treat   the   cells   in   such   a   manner   that   the   plasma   membrane   becomes   withdrawn   away   from   the   rigid   cell   wall. This   can   be   done   by   placing   the   cell   in   a   strong   salt   solution. This   will   cause   water   toà ‚   diffuse   out   of   the   cell   by   osmosis,   thereby   decreasing   the   cell   volume. The   unaffected   cell   wall remains  in  its  original  state. What  can  then  be  seen  is  a  space  between  the   cell  wall  and  the  limiting  boundary  of  the  protoplast  (the  cell  minus  the  cell   wall)  which  thereby  becomes  visible. Remove   your   Elodea   slide   from   the   microscope   stage. Delicately   remove   the   coverslip,   add   one   drop   of   5%   NaCl   solution   then   put   back  the  coverslip  on  your  preparation ? Refocus   at   40x   (don't   forget:   you   must   first   focus   at   4X,   then   10X   and  finally  at  40x). ? Are   the   cells   plasmolyzed? (If   not   wait   a   while   longer). How   do   they   look  like  now? __ ____________________ ? Has  the  cell  wall  been  affected? _________________   ? What   becomes   of   the   large   central   vacuole   during   plasmolysis? ______  _______________________________________________ Take  a  picture  of  a  plasmolyzed  Elodea  cell. How  does  it  compare  to   the  previous  picture? 18 Lab1  ? Microscopy Prokaryotic  Cells:  Lyngbya  (eubacteria:  cyanobacteria)   1. Take   a   close   look   at   the   sample   in   the   jar. Which   colour   would   best   describe  its  appearance? ___________________ 2. Prepare  a  wet  mount  of  fresh  Lyngbya  by  the  following  procedure:   ? With   forceps   or   an   eye   dropper,   put   a   very   small   amount   of   green   matter  on  a  clean  slide ? Add  a  drop  of  water  from  the  jar. ? Carefully   place   a   co verslip   over   it. Make   sure   it   lies   flat   on   the   preparation.Don't   worry   if   there   are   just   a   few   air   bubbles. With   practice,   your   skills   will   improve. However,   if   too   many   air   bubbles   are   present,   your   preparation   risks   to   dry   out   very   quickly   during   viewing,  compromising  your  observations. 3. Starting  with  the  4X  objective,  focus  on  your  preparation. ? Can  you  see  numerous  green  filaments? _______ ? Are  the  filaments  moving? __________ 4. Switch  to  the  10X  then  the  40X  objective  and  focus  using  the  fine  focus   knob  only: ? Do  you  see  the  individual  cells  making  up  each  filament? ________ ? Estimate  the  width  of  one  filament  in  micrometres:_______ What’s  the  filamentà ‚  width  in  millimetres  (mm)? ________ ? REMEMBER:   You   are   working   with   living   cells. Work   quickly   and   keep   your   specimen   wet   at   all   times. Dead,   dry   or   damaged   biological  preparations  are  useless. Returning  the  microscopes  after  use After   completing   all   observations,   turn   and   click   the   low   power   objective   (4X)  on  the  compound  microscope  into  position. Remove  the  slide  from  the  stage  and  return  it  to  its  correct  box. Wipe  the  stages  with  a  clean  paper  towel. Carefully  disconnect  the  camera  from  the  firewire  cable.Make   sure   you   turned   off   the   light   on   each   microscope,   then   unplug   the   power  cord  and  make  a  loose  coil  of  it  around  the  eyepieces. Return  the  microscope  in  the  cupboard. 19 Lab1  ? Microscopy TAs   will   check   that   you   properly   returned   the   microscopes   in   the cupboard   with  the  cord  properly  attached  and  no  slide  present  on  the   stage. You   will   lose  marks  for  this  lab  (and  other  labs)  if  you  don’t  do  so. Evaluation A   short   quiz   on   microscope   components,   specimen   observations   and   measurement  of  objects  will  take  place  at  the  beginning  of  Lab2.Be  on  time,  the  quiz  will  start  at  2:30. References: 1? Metric  system  (see  also  appendix  IV  at  the  end  of  lab  manual):   1  centimetre  cm  =  10? 2  metres  (m) 1  millimetre  mm  =  10? 3  metres 1  micrometre  ? m  =  10? 6  metres 1  nanometre  nm  =  10? 9  metres 2? Size  of   camera  field  of  views  (fov): Table  2:  Fields  of  View:  Olympus  CX41  Compound  Microscope   Objective 4X 10X 40X 100X Camera  field  of  view (width  in  mm) 1. 75 0. 70 0. 175 0. 070 Table  3:  Fields  of  View  Ã¢â‚¬â€œÃ‚  Olympus  SZ61TR  Dissecting  Microscope   Zoom  Setting 0. 67X 0. 8X 1X

Belonging – ‘We Are Going’

What does the Oodgeroo Noonuccal poem ‘We Are Going’ have to say about Belonging and Not Belonging? How does the poet use language forms, features and structures to convey ideas and feelings? The poem ‘We Are Going’ by Oodgeroo Noonuccal is about the displacement of the Aboriginal people in Australian society/culture and their confusion about where or what to belong to as their traditional customs are taken away/forgotten. The text raises the issues and themes of ‘Belonging’ through a mostly-‘defeated’ tone as it shows their loss of tradition and culture in the new Australia.In order to create a sense of sympathy and consideration for the Aboriginal people, the poet uses a range of language forms and techniques to cause effect in this text. One of the most important of these is the writer’s use of Irony – in Lines 8-9 we see the words, â€Å"We are strangers here now, but the white tribe are the strangers. We belong h ere, we are of the old ways†. This statement, in particular, expresses the overall message of this poem while focusing on the ‘Belonging’ concept.The writer put forward the interesting yet tragic idea that the Aboriginal people no longer belong to their homeland, whereas the â€Å"White tribe† – who are unable to fully understand or appreciate it as the Indigenous do – have now overrun them and belong more to this land now than they do. This side of the poem brings it its tragic and â€Å"defeated† tone, thus affecting the reader. The language the poet uses is quite informal and colloquial, without using any slang. The feeling created is that of a story-telling almost.They also use some Indigenous words such as â€Å"corroboree† and â€Å"Dream Time†. This is in-keeping with the poet’s heritage and the nature of ‘belonging’ to a language and to a people. Using unusual, broken-meter and irregular phrasin g, the melancholy mood is heightened in that it doesn’t flow as a poem often does. This puts more emphasis on each line and makes it sound less like a poem, more like a short story. Then, in Lines 8-14, the constant repetition of the word â€Å"we† at the beginning of each line gives the poem a more defiant, hopeful edge; making it sound like a pledge.The blunt contrast between the words â€Å"We† and â€Å"They† at the beginning of many lines de-humanises the White people, making them seem more like an enemy or foe. The poet also uses very emotive words such as â€Å"Subdued and Silent†, â€Å"Dream Time†, â€Å"Laughter† and â€Å"Belong† to cause effect, as well as Visually-impacting words such as â€Å"Wandering Camp Fires†, â€Å"Lightening†, â€Å"Dark Lagoon† and â€Å"Shadow Ghosts†. These add to the emotional effect and eerie feel. Like a true Indigenous person (the author is clearly Aborigi nal by looking at her name and her use of â€Å"they† and â€Å"we†), they speak of the land like their mother, their provider (eg. The shrubs are gone, the hunting and the laughter. The eagle is gone, the emu and the kangaroo are gone from this place†, and so the poet asserts a strong connection and sense of ‘Belonging’ to the land and to their people, even though they are â€Å"dying out† as a culture and community. As the final line states, â€Å"And We Are Going†, the writer is not only stressing that their race or clan is becoming extinct, but also that the traditional Indigenous customs and traditions and being forgotten.These are a part of the Aboriginal culture and a significant thing, which they belong to as a people. This is shown through the writer’s emphasis on these customs and traditions in such lines as â€Å"We are the corroboree and the bora ground† and â€Å"We are the wonder tales of the Dream Time, the tribal legends told. † When the poet uses phrases like â€Å"The Shrubs are gone† and â€Å"The emu and kangaroo are gone from this place†, she doesn’t mean they are extinct completely, of course.What she is saying is, in fact, is that their traditional way of life is gone – the hunting and gathering, their â€Å"wandering camp fires†. The White people have come and taken over their land and have chased away many of the native plants, animals etc. and as such the Aboriginals are left confused and misplaced in their own land, becoming dependent on the Europeans for food, whereas before they were self-sufficient and able to hunt, and medicine, with the introduction of virus and disease.And so, basically, the poem is in fact a metaphor for the disappearing old way of life of the Aboriginal people and their connection and sense of Belonging to the land. It assumes a slightly nostalgic tone with traces of defiance in some parts but an overall sen se of hopelessness and defeat. Through it, we the reader meditate on the idea of ‘Belonging’ and ask ourselves what the Aboriginal people will belong to in our society where their old traditional ways are being taken away. In the words of Oodgeroo Noonuccal, â€Å"We Are Going†.